Chapter 15 - Human Origins

I. Distinguish characteristics of Humans from Primates
	A. Body structure variations
	    1. larger brain
	    2. structural modifications for upright walking
		a. vertebral column
		b. pelvic structure
		c.  legs
	    3. flat face
	    4. less robust teeth
	    5. manual dexterity
	B. Ability differences and attributes
	    1. intelligence level
	    2. language
	    3. aesthetic sensibility

II. Primates
	A. Characteristic physical attributes
	    1. 5 digits; opposable digits included
	    2. non-specialized teeth
	    3. no horns, trunks, antlers
	    4. relatively large brain
	B. Characteristic abilities
	    1. grasping and manipulation by hands
	    2. good binocular vision and depth perception
	    3. upright walking capability
	C. Modern Suborders
	    1. Prosimii:  Tree shrews, lorises, tarsiers, lemurs
	    2. Anthopoidea:  Monkeys, apes, humans
	D. Prosimii primitive characteristics:  Claws, snouts
	E. Anthopoidea advanced characteristics:  Flat faces, digits, vestigal or real 
	tails
	    1. Ceboidea (New World Monkeys):  Older branch; not human
	    ancestors; has prehensile tail (Spider monkey, marmoset, capuchin)
	    2. Cercopithecoidea (Old World Monkeys):  Younger branch; 
	    ancestors to human lineage; no prehensile tail (macaque, rhesus monkey, Barbary 
	    ape, langurs, baboons, mandrills)
	F. Anthropoid Apes:  Lineage diverged in Middle Tertiary
	    1. Hylobatidae (Primitive Branch):  Gibbons
	    2. Pongidae (Advanced Branch)
		a. Arboreals:  Orangutan, chimpanzees
		b. Terrestrials:  Gorillas

III. Evolutionary Step One:  Prosimian Lineage
	A. Cretaceous Purgatorius:  Hell Creek Fm. (MT)
	B. Paleocene Plesiadapis:  U.S. and France; primitive tooth structure with gap
	(diastema); claws on digits; extinct by Late Eocene
	C. Eocene Cantitus:  Wyoming; shorter snout; grasping toe
	D. Eocene Northarctus:  Wyoming; replaced Cantitus
	E. Eocene Tetonius:  traits like a modern tarsier
	F. Oligocene cooling:  Forced Prosimians out of N. America to warmer latitudes 
	(Asia, Africa, E. Indies)

IV. Evolutionary Step Two:  Anthropoids
	A. Oligocene Aegyptopithecus:  Egypt; robust arboreal primate; ape-like 5 cusped
	 molar; ape ancestor
	B. Oligocene-Miocene New World Monkeys:  S. America; independent evolution; 4 
	cusp molar-like all monkeys
	C. Oligocene-Eocene Old World Monkeys:  Eurasia
	D. Miocene plate tectonics and evolution:  Closing of Tethys led to cooling and
	drying of east Africa; grasslands replaced forests; primate evolution thus affected
	E. Miocene Crymorphs:  Dryopithecus fontani (France); Proconsul afraicanus (Kenya);
	 ape-like form
	F. Middle Miocene Proconsul:  Ancestor to modern African apes and australopithecine
	 humans

V. Evolutionary Step Three:  Australopithecines and Hominids
	A. Australopithecines:  Robust and gracile forms; upright walking; human stance;
	 robust teeth; brain size of apes (about 600 cm3); used crude tools
	    1. Chronology of genus Australopithecus)
		a. Ardipithecus (Australopithecus) ramidus:  4.4 m.y., Ethiopia
		b. Australopithecus anamensis:  4.2-3.9 m.y., Kenya
		c. Australopithecus afarensis:  3.9-3.0 m.y., eastern Africa
		d. Australopithecus africanus:  2.7-2.5 m.y.
		e. Anstralopithecus robustus and A. bosei
	    2. Transition to homonids:  Increased size of cranial vault; changed position
	    of foramen magnum; narrower premolars, length of tooth row reduced; stone tool
	    s associated with fossils
		a. Homo rudolfensis and H. habilis:  2.9-2.5 m.y.; savannahs of Africa
		b. Homo erectus;  2.8 m.y. first appearance
	    3. Reasons for australophithecine-homonid transition
		a. Africa growing cooler and drier
		b. Rain forest transition to grassland
		c. Selective pressures for bipedalism and cerebral abilities
	B. Homonids:  Upright walking; feet aligned for clean gait; human-like teeth; 
	larger brain (885-1300 cm3): social, tool users
	    1. Original discoveries:  Pithecanthropus erectus (Java) and Sinanthropus
	    pekinensis (China)
	    2. Original discoveries considered one species now:  Homo erectus

VI. Evolutionary Step Four:  Homo erectus ("first true humans"); first homonids to move
out of Africa
	A. Chronology of dispersion
	    1. Early Pleistocene (1.8 m.y.):  H. erectus in Rep. of Georgia
	    2. Early Pleistocene (1.5 m.y.):  H. erectus at west Turkana site
	    3. Middle Pleistocene (0.9 m.y.):  H. erectus known in Africa and Europe
	    4. Late Pleistocene (0.01 m.y.):  H. erectus fully dispersed
	B. Trends in Homo erectus evolution over Pleistocene
	    1. Brain size increase:  775 to 1300 cm3
	    2. Pelvic changes to accommodate birth of larger babies' head
	C. Homo erectus characteristics
	    1. Prognathous face:  Sloped forehead, broad flat nose, modern human teeth,
	    chinless
	    2. Hunters, tool makers, builders
	    3. Social units or bands
	    4. Cannibalism or slaughter sites (mass graves)
	    5. May have used fire in daily life

VII. Evolutionary Step five:  Homo sapiens
	A. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (German):  Late Pleistocene descendent of 
	Homo erectus; brow ridges; prognathous; chinless jaw; human-like below neck; 
	brain size 1200-1500 cm3 (= human today); "cave man"
	    1. Activities:  Cave-dwelling, painting, carving, tool making, rituals of 
	    hunting, death rituals
	    2. Use of fire:  Heating cooking, crafting
	B. Homo sapiens sapiens (Cro-magnonman; northern Europe):  Replaced Neanderthals 
	in all regions 34,000 yr. ago during last Pleistocene glacial stage; possible 
	Cro-Magnon-Neanderthal ware or severed competition for resources.
	    1. Characteristics:  Vertical brow, projected chin, modern human teeth, 
	    modern human skull; brain size 1200-1500 cm3; same cranial type as found today
	    in northern Europe, north Africa, and Canary Islands.
	    2. Transitional Neanderthal-Cro-Magnon forms:  Palestine, South Africa, German,
	    Czechoslovakia
		a. Neanderthal-Cro-Magnon evolution outside Europe
		b. Cro-Magnon migration into Europe and Asia during slight glacial retreat 
		35,0000 yr. ago
	    3. Activities:  Tool making, painting, rituals, hunting, engraving, sculpting, 
	    burial ceremony, ornaments and clothing, cultivation of plants and animals, 
	    tribal activities
	    4. Evidence of higher thought:  Complexity of rituals, tribal organization, 
	    variety of tools and items created, intricate clothing, skill levels, language 
	    and symbols
	    5. Migration of Aboriginals into N. America
		a. likely timing near end of last Pleistocene glaciation when sea level 
		was lower
		b. enter across Bering Straits (land bridge between Asia and N. America)
		c. evidence of west coast and Alaska occupation:  Flints and campfires 30,000 
		to 23,000 yr. old
	    6. Paleoindians of Late Pleistocene
		a. Cloris and Sandia (NM) sites:  Tools dated at 11,000 and 13,000 yr.
		b. Folsom Culture:  9,000-11,000 yr. ago
	    7. Other evidence of ancient people in the Americas
		a. Skull at Laguna Beach (CA):  Between 15,680 and 18,620 yr. old
		b. Cave bones of "Marmes Man" (WAW):  Between 11,500 and 13,000 yr. old
		c. C. Guitarrero Cave Bones (Peru):  12,600 yr. old
		d. Various sites "older than 11,000 yr.:"  FL, MS, CA, TAX, Venezuela, 
		Chile, Argentina

VIII. Human Population Growth
	A. Change over time
	    1. Estimate at end of Pleistocene (10,000 yr. ago):  6 million humans
	    2. Estimate at year A.D. 1:  300 million, a 50 X increase in 10,000 yr.
	    3. Estimate at year A.D. 1970:  3,600 million, a 12 X increase in 1970 yr.
	    4. Projection for year A.D. 2000:  7,500 million, a 2 X increase in 30 yr.
	    5. Projection for year A.D. 2010:  10,000 million, a 1.3 X increase in 10 yr.
	B. Depletion of Resources
	    1. 20% topsoil now used up
	    2. 33% forested areas lost in last 50 yr.
	    3. 12.5% agricultural land destroyed by overgrazing
	    4. Massive loss of soil productivity
	    5. 5% reduction in ozone layer
	    6. 33% increase in greenhouse gas since industrial revolution
	    7. Water shortages becoming common
	    8. Depletion of many key mineral resources
	C. Future goals to sustain quality life
	    1. Reduce population growth; stabilize world population
	    2. Reforestation and land conservation
	    3. Pollution reduction
	    4. Recycling of mineral and other resources