Chapter 4 - The Fossil Record

I.	Preservation
	A.  Rare, unaltered hard parts
	B.  Permineralization
	C.  Replacement
	D.  Carbonization
	E.  Casts and molds
	F.  Trace fossils
	    1.  Tracks and trails
	    2.  Burrows
	    3.  Borings

II.	Incompleteness of fossil record
	A.  Sedimentation not continuous
	B.  Preservation is rare event
	C.  Plants and animals not evenly distributed
	D.  Geologic processes
	E.  Serendipity

III.	Rank and order (Linnaean system, c. 1750)
	A.  Concept of a species as fundamental unit
	    1.  Biologic concept
	    2.  Paleontologic concept
	B.  Taxonomic order (hierarchy)
	    1.  Kingdom
	    2.  Phylum
	    3.  Class
	    4.  Order
	    5.  Family
	    6.  Genus
	    7.  Species

IV.	Organic Evolution
	A.  Lamarck’s Theory (c. 1815)
	    1.  All species descended from others
	    2.  New structures appear out of "need" or "want"
	    3.  Once acquired, structures can be passed on
	B.  Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection (1859)
	    1.  Cause of variation is "character determiners"
	    2.  Variation documented experimentally
	    3.  Variations in population allow survival
	C.  Mendelian Principles of Inheritance (1865)
	    1.  Cause of variation is "character determiners"
	    2.  Variation documented experimentally
	D.  Modern Genetics
	    1.  Genes are determiners
	    2.  DNA molecule active in hereditary transmission
	    3.  Genes as part of DNA
	    4.  Chromosomes as links within DNA
	E.  Mutation Theory
	    1.  Genes may have changes externally (mutation)
	    2.  Mutation via UV-light, cosmic rays, x-rays, chemicals
	    3.  Sex cell mutation strongly affects evolution
	F.  Modern Organic Evolution Theory
	    1.  Change due to:  Mutation, gene recombination, natural selection
	    2.  Concept of population
	    3.  Concept of gene pool
	    4.  Speciation is origin of species
	    5.  Concept of speciation barriers
	    6.  Adaptive Radiation
	    7.  Gradual or Punctuated Equilibrium
		a.  phyletic gradualism
		b.  punctuated equilibrium
	    8.  Phylogeny and Phylogenetic trees
		a.  stratophenetic phylogeny
		b.  cladistic phylogeny
	    9.  Evidence of Evolution
		a.  paleontologic
		b.  biologic (homologous structures, vestigial organs)

V.	Fossils and Stratigraphy:  Establishing age equivalence of strata using fossils
	A.  Key findings
	    1.  Principle of Fossil Succession
	    2.  Life has changed through time
	    3.  Principle of Superposition
	    4.  Extinction:  Permanent loss of a species
	    5.  Similar fossils in similar environments of same age
	B.  Concept of Geologic Range of a Fossil
	    1.  Key fossils - local sections
		a.  first occurrence (oldest)
		b.  last occurrence (youngest)
	    2.  Index fossils - correlative value
	    3.  Chronostratigraphic units - established for correlative purposes across         regions
	C.  Concept of Index Fossil
	    1.  Cosmopolitan species
	    2.  Rapid rate of evolution
	    3.  Relatively insensitive to environmental changes
	D.  Biostratigraphic Zones
	    1.  Range Zone:  One taxon
	    2.  Assemblage Zone:  Coexisting taxa
    	    3.  Concurrent Range Zone:  2 or more taxa

VI.	Ancient Environments and Fossils (Paleoecology)
	A.  Marine Environment
	    1.  Trophic Levels
		a.  producers (e.g. plants)
		b.  consumers (e.g. carnivores)
	    2.  Adaptations:  Modifications for living
	    3.  Actualism:  Uses study of modern analogues
	    4.  Marine Realms
		a.  pelagic:  Neritic and oceanic
		b.  benthic:  Littoral, sublittoral, bathyal, abyssal, hadal
	B.  Environmental Reconstruction  (Ancient Geography)
	    1.  Use of actualism and modern research
	    2.  Correlation and paleogeographic maps
	    3.  Biofacies analysis
	C.  Ancient Climatic Interpretations
	    1.  Geographic limits due to temperature
	    2.  Metabolic changes due to climatic shifts
	    3.  Changes in mineralogic composition due to temperature

VII.	Overview of History of Life
	A.  Precambrian Eons (b.y. = billion years)
	    1.  Hadean:  4.6 - 3.8 b.y. (no fossil record)
	    2.  Archean:  3.8 - 2.5 b.y. (bacteria, algae, stromatolites)
	    3.  Proterozoic:  2.5 - 0.57 b.y. (fossil metazoans:  Worms, coelenterates,
    	    arthropods)
	    4.  Phanerozoic (0.57 - 0 b.y.)
		a.  Paleozoic:  Marine invertebrates, first vertebrates, land plants
		b.  Mesozoic:  More marine invertebrates, land vertebrates, plants
		c.  Cenozoic:  Modern mammals, flowering plants

VIII. 	Mineral Resources
	A.  Fossils as source for hydrocarbons
	B.  Fossils used in correlation to predict resource locations

IX.	Life on other planets
	A.  Life as we know it not conclusively found elsewhere in our solar system
		a.  possible bacterial remains 3.6 billion years old recovered in Martian
		meteorite
		b.  a satellite of Jupiter, Europa, may have an ocean below its ice crust and
		harbor life forms
	B.  Extraterrestrial life possible on billions of other solar systems