Last Review Date: August 1, 2022

I.  Purpose/Scope

The purpose of this Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) is to provide a range of common anesthetics, sedatives, analgesic, and euthanasia agents that are available for species housed within LAR facilities.  The dosages and routes of administration are provided, as well as other pertinent information regarding their usage. These tables do not catalog all available drugs, nor dosages. If a PI wishes to utilize a drug or dosage not provided within these charts, the AV should be consulted. The PI should also be aware of the drug action, expected duration, as well as any adverse effects the drugs selected for use may produce.

II.  Policy

It is LAR policy to meet or exceed all federal, state, and local regulations and guidelines and to comply with all institutional policies and procedures as they apply to the use of animals in research.  Personnel must attend any applicable training in animal care and use, occupational health and safety, equipment operation, and SOPs prior to performing activities outlined in this SOP or work under trained personnel's direct supervision

III.  Procedures

The standards of anesthesia for laboratory animals have increased significantly. These standards include the use of balanced anesthesia, physiologic monitoring, and improved postoperative care.

Balanced anesthesia is a practice of anesthesia using a combination of drugs, each in an amount sufficient to produce the optimum desired effect with a minimum of undesirable or adverse effects; in other words, minimize the animal's risk while maximizing the animal's comfort and safety.

The objective of a balanced anesthetic plan is to keep the animal calm, minimize pain, and reduce the potential for adverse events associated with analgesic and anesthetic agents. These combinations allow a reduction in the dosage of one or both, and reducing the required flow rate of inhaled anesthetics.

Physiologic monitoring of the anesthetized animal requires the use of manual (auscultation, palpation, or visual techniques) or technologic monitoring of the heart rate, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation (if available), blood pressure (if available), and body temperature.  For short anesthetic events (≤ 30 minutes), this monitoring is not always feasible due to the selected anesthetic agent's short duration of action or the required rapidity to finish a quick procedure without an anesthetist. More prolonged procedures require the use of an anesthetic monitoring form to document intraoperative physiologic monitoring (required physiologic measurements every 10-15 minutes), pre- and intraoperative drugs (dosages and time given), as well as adjustments in anesthetic flow rates as they occur during the procedure. A second person should be available to provide anesthesia and documentation while surgery is being performed.

Postoperative monitoring for short-duration procedures (<30 minutes) consists of placing the animal in a cage (without bedding) that is placed half-on and half-off a heating pad to provide supplemental warming while the animal recovers from the anesthesia/sedation. If the animal remains heavily sedated, it should be placed in sternal recumbency. Once the animal is ambulatory, it may be replaced in its standard housing cage. Recovery from a short procedure should be less than 15 minutes.

Postoperative monitoring for animals that have undergone a long anesthetic event (surgery) is a more extensive process requiring documentation. After anesthesia is discontinued, the animal should be placed in an incubator or a cage (without bedding) on a warm-water circulating pad. If the animal remains sedate for a very long time, it should be placed in sternal recumbency (belly down) to maximize bilateral lung inflation. Physiologic monitoring should continue every 15 minutes until it is ambulatory.

Once the animal is ambulatory, it should be examined every hour for three hours to ensure it is eating and drinking normally. If normothermia has not been achieved once the animal is ambulatory, it should remain on heat support, and its temperature checked hourly until a normal body temperature is documented. Supplemental soft food placed on the cage floor should be provided to improve appetite and prevent weight loss during this phase of recovery. The use of SQ fluids should be considered during the preoperative planning phase to ensure proper hydration postoperatively. After three hours of satisfactory recovery and documented normothermia, the animal may be returned to its home cage and monitored a minimum of twice daily for three days (or otherwise specified in the AUP). Further monitoring will be defined in the AUP.

Anesthetic and postoperative monitoring forms should be kept in a binder in the animal housing room for the experiment's duration, for examination by the AV or LAR staff.

 

Mouse and Hamster Anesthetics and Analgesics

Inhaled Anesthetic

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Isoflurane	Induction: 3-5%        Maintenance: 1-5%	No	Administered via precision vaporizer & compressed O2 or open-drop method

Injectable Sedation Drugs/Combinations

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Buprenorphine (Ethiqa XR)	3.25 mg/kg, (0.05 ml/20g mouse) SQ	Yes	72 hr
Fentanyl	0.8 mg/kg, IP	Yes	4–6 hours
Ketamine|Medetomidine	50 mg/kg | 0.5 mg/kg, IP	Yes	20-40 minutes
Ketamine|Xylazine	50 mg/kg | 10 mg/kg, IP	Yes	20-30 minutes

Injectable Anesthetic Drug/Combinations

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Ketamine|Xylazine	80-100 | 7.5-16 mg/kg IP, IM	Yes	20-30 minutes
Ketamine | Xylazine | Acepromazine	100 | 2.5 | 2.5 mg/kg IP, IM	Yes	60-90 minutes
Ketamine|Medetomidine	75-150 | 0.5-1.0 mg/kg, SQ, IP, may mix in syringe	Yes	50 minutes
Pentobarbital	50-90 mg/kg, IP	Yes	20-40 minutes

Local Anesthetics

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Lidocaine (1-2%)	2-4 mg/kg, IM, SQ	No	Onset 5-10 minutes, Duration < 1 hour, may need to dilute to achieve appropriate volume for infiltration
Bupivicaine (0.5% Marcaine®)	1-2 mg/kg, SQ	No	Onset 15-30 minutes, Duration 4-8 hours, may need to dilute to achieve appropriate volume for infiltration

Reversal Agents for Xylazine, Medetomidine, Ketamine, and Acepromazine

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Yohimbine	0.2 mg/kg, IM, SQ	No	Partial reversal of Ketamine and Acepromazine
Atipamezole	5 mg for every 1 mg of Medetomidine	No	Medetomidine reversal
Atipamezole	1 mg for every 10 mg of Xylazine, IM, SQ	No	Xylazine reversal

Analgesics

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Buprenorphine (Buprenex®)	0.01-0.2 mg/kg, SQ, IP	Yes	6-12 hours
Buprenorphine        (Ethiqa XR®)	3.25 mg/kg, SQ, (0.05 ml/20g mouse)	Yes	72 hours
Fentanyl	0.05 mg/kg, IP	Yes	4-6 hours
Carprofen (Rimadyl®)	5 mg/kg, SQ, IP	Yes	24 hours
Meloxicam (Metacam®)	1-2 mg/kg, PO, SQ	No	24 hours
Ketoprofen (Ketofen®)	5 mg/kg, SQ	No	12-24 hours
Ibuprofen Liquigel cap (opened and vortexed in 200 ml of water)	1 mg/ml, PO	No	Administered continuously *short duration use only*
Acetaminophen (Tylenol® Elixir)*	300 mg/kg or 2-4.5 mg/ml, PO	No	Administered continuously *short duration use only*

Injectable Euthanasia Agent

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Pentobarbital 390 mg/ml (Beuthanasia® or Euthasol®)	150 mg/kg IP	Yes	Terminal

* Not appropriate as the only post-surgical analgesic to be administered due to reduction in 
  water intake 24-28 hours following surgery

Rat and Degu Anesthetics and Analgesics

Inhaled Anesthetic

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Isoflurane	Induction: 3-5%            Maintenance: 1-5%	No	Administered via precision vaporizer & compressed O2 or open-drop method with IACUC approval

Injectable Sedation Drugs/Combinations

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Fentanyl	0.8 mg/kg, IP	Yes	4–6 hours
Ketamine|Medetomidine	50 mg/kg | 0.5 mg/kg, IP	Yes	20-40 minutes
Ketamine|Xylazine	50 mg/kg | 10 mg/kg, IP	Yes	20-30 minutes

Injectable Anesthetic Drug/Combinations

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Ketamine | Xylazine	40-80 | 5-10 mg/kg IP, IM	Yes	30-45 minutes, to prolong anesthesia, supplement with 1/3 dose of Ketamine only. Provide thermal support
Ketamine | Xylazine | Acepromazine	100 | 2.5 | 2.5 mg/kg IP, IM	Yes	45-60 minutes, to prolong anesthesia, supplement with 1/3 dose of Ketamine only
Ketamine | Medetomidine	60-90 | 0.5 mg/kg, IP	Yes	30-40 minutes, to prolong anesthesia, supplement with 1/3 dose of Ketamine only. Provide thermal support
Pentobarbital	30-60 mg/kg, IP	Yes	60-80 minutes Do not combine with opioids
Propofol	10 mg/kg, IV	No	5-7 minutes. Titrate use. Must be given very slowly IV; rapid administration lowers blood pressure precipitously

Local Anesthetics

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Lidocaine (1-2%)	2-4 mg/kg, (max 7 mg/kg), SQ	No	Onset 5-10 minutes, Duration 0.5-1 hours
Bupivicaine (0.5% Marcaine®)	1-2 mg/kg (max 8 mg/kg), SQ	No	Onset 15-30 minutes, Duration 4-8 hours

Reversal Agents for Xylazine, Medetomidine, Ketamine, and Acepromazine

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Yohimbine	0.2 mg/kg, IM, SQ	No	Partial reversal of Ketamine and Acepromazine
Atipamezole	5 mg for every 1 mg of Medetomidine, IM, SQ	No	Medetomidine reversal
Atipamezole	1 mg for every 10 mg of Xylazine, IM, SQ	No	Xylazine reversal

Analgesics

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Buprenorphine (Buprenex®)	0.01-0.2 mg/kg, SQ, IP	Yes	6-12 hours
Buprenorphine          (Ethiqa XR®)	0.65 mg/kg, SQ, (0.1 ml/200g rat)	Yes	72 hours
Fentanyl	0.05 mg/kg, IP, IM	Yes	4-6 hours
Carprofen (Rimadyl®)	5 mg/kg, SQ, IP	No	24 hours
Meloxicam (Metacam®)	1-2 mg/kg, PO, SQ	No	24 hours
Flunixin (Banamine®)	1.1-2.5 mg/kg, SQ	No	12-24 hours
Ketoprofen (Ketofen®)	5 mg/kg, SQ	No	12-24 hours
Ibuprofen Liquigel cap (opened and vortexed in 200 ml of water)	40 mg/kg or 0.2 mg/ml, PO	No	Water administration
Acetaminophen (Tylenol® Elixir)	300 mg/kg or 2-4.5 mg/ml, PO	No	Water administration

Injectable Euthanasia Agent

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Pentobarbital 390 mg/ml (Beuthanasia® or Euthasol®)	150 mg/kg IP	Yes	Terminal

* Not appropriate as the only post-surgical analgesic to be administered due to reduction in
  water intake 24-28 hours following surgery

Neonatal Rodent Analgesics and Anesthetics

Inhaled Anesthetic

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Isoflurane	Induction: 3-5%            Maintenance: 1-5%	No	Administered via precision vaporizer and compressed O2. Open-drop method with IACUC approval.

Hypothermia

Hypothermia Method: Mouse and rat pups up to 6 days of age may be anesthetized by hypothermia when inhalant anesthesia is not feasible. Hypothermia for induction: Place the pup in a nitrile glove finger and immerse the glove finger in crushed ice and water (2-3 °C or 35-37°F) up to the level of the head so that the head of the pup is visible. Anesthesia induction takes 5-8 minutes Procedure: Remove the pup from the ice bath and place on a re-freezable ice pack. A piece of gauze or cloth should prevent direct contact of the pup's kin with the freezable ice pack. Duration of anesthesia on an ice pack is 15 minutes maximum Hypothermia Recovery: Rapid warming should be avoided. Pups can be placed in a small incubator (32-35°C or 90-95°F) for gradual warming over 20-30 minutes. Once warmed for this time, circulating warm water blankets can be used until mobile with complete recovery taking 30-60 minutes. Once mobile, pups may be mingled with the litter to aid in covering the procedure smells on the pup, then the litter returned to the dam.

Injectable Anesthetic Drug/Combinations

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Ketamine | Xylazine	40-80 | 5-10 mg/kg IP	Yes	Injectable anesthetic in neonatal rodents is unpredictable and has a > 50% rate of mortality. Use of injectable anesthetics should only be considered in neonates >6 days and where gas anesthesia is not feasible
Pentobarbital	30-60 mg/kg, IP	Yes	Injectable anesthetic in neonatal rodents is unpredictable and has a > 50% rate of mortality. Use of injectable anesthetics should only be considered in neonates >6 days and where gas anesthesia is not feasible

Analgesics

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Morphine	5-10 mg/kg, SQ	Yes	6 hours
Buprenorphine (Buprenex®)	0.05-0.2 mg/kg, SQ, IP	Yes	6-8 hours
Fentanyl	0.05 mg/kg, IP	Yes	4 hours

Snowshoe Hare Anesthetics and Analgesics

Inhaled Anesthetic

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Isoflurane	Induction: 3-5%            Maintenance: 1-5%	No	Administered via precision vaporizer and compressed O2 or by open-drop method

Injectable Anesthetic Drug/Combinations

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Ketamine | Xylazine	35 | 5 mg/kg, SQ	Yes	30-40 minutes, to prolong anesthesia, supplement with 1/3 dose of Ketamine only
Ketamine |Xylazine | Acepromazine	35 | 5 | 1 mg/kg IM	Yes	45-60 minutes, to prolong anesthesia, supplement with 1/3 dose of Ketamine only
Ketamine | Xylazine | Butorphanol	35 | 5 | 0.1 mg/kg IM	Yes	To prolong anesthesia, supplement with 1/3 dose of Ketamine only
Ketamine | Diazepam	20-40 | 1-5 mg/kg, IM	Yes	To prolong anesthesia, supplement with 1/3 dose of Ketamine only

Injectable Sedatives

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Expected Duration
Acepromazine	1-5 mg/kg, SQ, IM	No	4 hours, light to moderate sedation without analgesia
Xylazine	0.5-3 mg/kg, SQ, IM	No	30-60 minutes, moderate to profound sedation with mild analgesia
Alfaxalone	6 mg/kg, IM	Yes	40 minutes, moderate sedation
Medetomidine	0.25-0.5 mg/kg, SQ, IM	Yes	1-2 hours, moderate to deep sedation
Ketamine	25-50 mg/kg, IM, IV	Yes	1 hour (IM), 15-20 minutes (IV), moderate sedation

Local Anesthetics

Agent	Dosage and Route	Use	Comments
Lidocaine	< 4 mg/kg (<0.4ml/kg of a 1% solution), infiltrate	Local anesthesia	Duration < 1 hour, may need to dilute to achieve appropriate volume for infiltration
Bupivacaine	< 2 mg/kg (<0.8 ml/kg of a 0.25% solution, infiltrate	Local anesthesia	Duration 4-8 hours, may need to dilute to achieve appropriate volume for infiltration

Analgesics

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Comments
Buprenorphine	0.01-0.05 mg/kg, SQ, IV	Yes	6-12 hours
Buprenorphine SR	0.12 mg/kg SQ	Yes	72 hours
Carprofen	2-4 mg/kg, SQ, PO	No	12-24 hours
Meloxicam	0.2-1 mg/kg SQ, PO	No	24 hours, Use high end of dose range for PO administration
Ketoprofen	1-3 mg/kg, SQ, IM	No	24 hours

Reversal Agents for Xylazine, Medetomidine, Ketamine, Acepromazine, and Diazepam

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Comments
Atipamezole (Antisedan®)	0.1-1.0 mg/kg, SQ, IM, IV	No	Reversal agent for Xylazine and Medetomidine
Yohimbine (Yobine®)	0.2-1.0 mg/kg, IM, IV	No	Partially reverses effects of Ketamine and Acepromazine

Injectable Euthanasia Agent

Agent	Dosage	DEA License	Comments
Pentobarbital 390 mg/ml (Beuthanasia® or Euthasol®)	150 mg/kg IP	Yes	Terminal

 

Bird Anesthetics and Analgesics

Inhaled Anesthetic

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Comments
Isoflurane	Induction:3-5%  Maintenance: 1-5%	No	Administered via precision vaporizer and compressed O2 or by open-drop method

Injectable/Intranasal Sedatives

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Comments
Midazolam (Versed®)	2 mg/kg, IN, IM 4-6 mg/kg for finch sized birds, IN	Yes	Wide margin of safety. Sedative, muscle relaxant, anxiolytic, amnestic. Dosages are for sole drug use – no combinations
Diazepam (Valium®)	0.2-2 mg/kg, IN only 10-15 mg/kg IN only in finch size birds	Yes	IM injection should be avoided; Use as a sole agent
Midazolam | Butorphanol	2 | 1-2 mg/kg, IM	Yes	For deeper sedation; may be mixed in the same syringe for administration

Local Anesthetics

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Comments
Lidocaine	≤ 4 mg/kg SQ, topical	No	Duration < 1 hour, may need to dilute to achieve appropriate volume for infiltration
Bupivacaine	2 mg/kg SQ	No	Duration 4-8 hours, may need to dilute to achieve appropriate volume for infiltration

Reversal Agents for Midazolam, Diazepam, and Medetomidine

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Comments
Flumazenil	0.05 mg/kg initially, if reversal incomplete after 10-15 minutes, repeat, IN, IM IV	No	Reversal agent for Diazepam and Midazolam, recovery from sedation is usually complete within 10-15 minutes
Atipamezole		No	Reversal agent for Xylazine and Medetomidine

Analgesics

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Expected Duration
Butorphanol (opioid)	1-3 mg/kg, IN*	Yes	2-3 hours, analgesic and sedative effects
Meloxicam (NSAID)	1-1.6 mg/kg, IM, PO	No	12-24 hours

*Administer IN drugs into the nostrils over 5-10 seconds. Split the total dose between both nostrils.   Release the bird and allow 7-10 minutes to reach maximum effect. Do not allow the bird to perch.   Place on the floor of the cage.

Injectable Euthanasia Agent

Agent	Dosage and Route	DEA License	Comments
Pentobarbital 390 mg/ml (Beuthanasia® or Euthasol®)	150 mg/kg IP	Yes	Terminal

 

NOTICE OF DISCLAIMER:  The information provided above is not intended to serve as a substitute for informed medical advice.  If you use any of the anesthetics, sedatives, or analgesic medications included in this table, seek veterinary consultation before usage. The University of Montana disclaims all liability arising from the misuse of this information.

References:

• Sedation and Analgesia in Birds. Mans, DVM, DACZM. U of W, School of Veterinary Medicine.
• Anesthesia for Companion Birds. Degernes, DVM, MPH, DABVP, NC State.2008
• Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals, 2^nd Fish et al.
• Laboratory Animal Medicine, 3^rd Academic Press.
• Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, 8^th Plumb
• Veterinary Anesthetic & Analgesic Formulary, 3^rd University of Colorado.
• Safety and Clinical Efficacy of Sustained-Release Buprenorphine for Post-Operative Analgesia in New Zealand White Rabbits. J Am Assoc Vet Med:
• Manual of Rabbit Medicine and Surgery, Flecknell, 2000
• Textbook of Rabbit Medicine. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001
• Buprenorphine for Pain Relief in Mice: Repeated Injections vs. Sustained-Release Depot Formulation. Lab Anim. 2015 Jul;49-87. Jirkof et al.
• Postoperative Analgesia Due to Sustained-Release Buprenorphine, Sustained-Release Meloxicam, and Carprofen Gel in a Model of Incisional Pain in Rats. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2016 May; 55(3): 300-305. Seymour et al.
• Palatability and Treatment Efficacy of Various Ibuprofen Formulations in C57BL/6 Mice with Ulcerative Dermatitis. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2012 Sep; 51(5): 609-615. Ezell et al.
• Alfaxalone-Xylazine Anesthesia in Laboratory Mice. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2019 Jan; 58(1): 30-39. Erickson et al.